Myth and Reality on the Plateau of Agio Pnevma
The Falakro Mountain, a mountain complex with a strong “character” and many special features, dominates and imposes itself on the landscape of the Drama region. From the plain of Drama, where the southern ends of the mountain are located, the gaze can reach its peaks unobstructed, which are among the highest in Eastern Macedonia and Thrace and remain snow-capped for many months of the year.
Falakro is one of the most important areas of our country in terms of biodiversity. Its distinctive geological substratum, combined with the climatic and topographic conditions of the region, has created a variety of habitats with remarkable floristic richness, featuring alpine wildflowers, resilient chasmophytes, aromatic herbs, and a high number of rare and endemic plants—so significant that they constituted the reason for its inclusion in the European Natura 2000 Network. During the past winter, an unpleasant surprise awaited the visitors of the ski resort and the mountain peaks. The phenomenon of mass infestation of pine trees by insect species that feed on their needles was added to the already negative image of the degradation of the area’s aesthetic and ecological value, caused by quarrying activities that have been expanding at a rapid pace in recent years.
The dark green color of the pines had been replaced by brown across almost the entire area of their distribution. The sight of “dry” and weakened pines over such a large expanse caused concern, and the anxiety about the forest’s future was voiced by many residents of Drama, who were under the mistaken impression that the forest trees had died.
The reality, however, is different. According to the report of the Committee for the Resilience of Greek Forest Ecosystems to Climate Change of the Academy of Athens, a large part of the genetic composition of forest species has evolved through their adaptation to various biotic and abiotic factors. Consequently, the forests of Greece are resilient to transient extreme conditions (e.g., drought, high temperatures). Nevertheless, recurring and prolonged periods of such conditions, combined with the increasingly frequent occurrence of extreme weather events, have direct or indirect negative impacts on forest health. Among the organisms that indirectly benefit from the disruption of forest ecosystem health—exacerbated by climate change—are insects. In the case of the black pine forest on Mount Falakro, the agent responsible is the pine processionary caterpillar (Thaumetopoea pityocampa). This lepidopteran species, in its larval stages, feeds on pine needles. The reduction of the tree’s needle-like foliage—that is, its photosynthetic units of energy production—results in diminished growth.
The feeding activity of the larvae can cause a reduction in the growth of the infested pine by 20–45%. The biology of the pine processionary is characterized by the formation of a “procession” from the tree toward the ground, from which it derives one of its names. This movement can only begin when the soil temperature exceeds 10°C. During the past winter, temperatures—even from mid-January onward—were unusually high for the season, which explains why the procession and pupation began almost two months earlier.
From the beginning of the summer, the situation has changed. The foliage of the pines has begun to regenerate, as new leaves (needles) and new shoots have developed. Infestation occurring in a single year does not cause destruction. The situation becomes ominous, however, when trees already weakened are attacked by bark beetles and wood-boring insects. In that undesirable scenario, a few years later, the secondary infestation would kill the most vulnerable trees of the forest, a phenomenon that could take on catastrophic proportions. Until now, large populations of such xylophagous insects have not been detected.
Higher up on the mountain, the forest gives way to grasslands, known for their great variety of wildflowers. For the summit grasslands of Mount Falakro, the 1980s and 1990s were a privileged period, as the pressures they faced were minimal. For the visitor who retains memories of the mountain from earlier decades, the grassland landscape has clearly changed. The serenity of the plateau of Agio Pnevma, which once absorbed the ruggedness of the surrounding peaks through the intense presence of abundant wildlife, no longer exists.
The once extensive and continuous grasslands of the imposing summit landscape of Mount Falakro have given way to slopes fragmented by ski lifts and roads, which are deemed absolutely necessary for the operation of the ski resort. Even more striking is the presence of a significant number of large domesticated animals. The increased presence of cattle for most months of the year and hundreds of equines (horses and mules) throughout the entire year has effectively turned both the plateau of Agio Pnevma—where the ski resort base is located—and its adjacent slopes into pastureland belonging to a large livestock enterprise. In recent years, a combination of negative impacts and threats—most notably overgrazing by equines and bovines—has affected the structure and functioning of the mountain’s subalpine grasslands, as well as the overall diversity, populations, robustness, and vitality of plant species. It should be clarified that organized grazing does not constitute a threat, whereas degradation may primarily result from overgrazing and reduced water quality. It must also be emphasized that for the mismanagement of these grasslands, the only parties responsible are humans, not the animals themselves.
The presence of domesticated animals—albeit rarely—results in the deposition of carcasses within grazing areas (due to disease, adverse conditions, accidents). Death is an integral part of nature. The recent (early July) presence of a carcass brought back—albeit temporarily—six vultures to the slopes of Koritsokorfi. Although some species of mammals and birds of prey have adapted evolutionarily to exploit carcasses as an easy source of food, vultures are the only strictly necrophagous species, the final consumers of the food chain.
Historically, the presence of vultures on Mount Falakro is confirmed both by accounts of elderly residents from nearby villages and by toponyms of the mountain (Kartalka, Kartal Tepe). However, over the past four decades, vultures have disappeared from the mountain. Changes in livestock-rearing practices and the expansion of stall-fed animal husbandry in nearby villages resulted in reduced food availability due to fewer dead animals in mountain meadows. Moreover, the initial limitation and subsequent disappearance of vultures from the mountain were significantly influenced by the use of poisoned baits, typically intended for so-called “harmful” carnivorous mammals. Fear, fueled by ignorance, led to the merciless persecution of vultures.
The phenomenon is not local. Vulture populations in Greece have dramatically declined over the last 40 years, as has their distribution across most of the country’s mountain ranges, while their capacity for population recovery has also diminished. Vultures, after all, are among the most threatened bird groups on the planet.
Their presence on Mount Falakro today is surely opportunistic, as the factors affecting their permanent presence and abundance are not expected to improve. On the other hand, the intensification and further entrenchment of pressures at high altitudes of Falakro appear rather ominous for the evolution of the grasslands within and around the plateau. Mitigation measures for the negative impacts do exist and have been proposed. “Protection of natural resources” and “sustainable development” cannot be associated with makeshift choices and the implementation of superficial measures—practices by which these issues have historically been handled by the Greek state.
Kostas Vidakis
Member of E.DI.P.
Department of Natural Environment and Climate Resilience
Democritus University of Thrace
“An article by Kostas Vidakis published in the magazine Diodos in July 2025.”
